Physics

P1.1 The particle model

• Definition of density
• Density and states of matter
• Density, mass and volume calculations
• Development of the atomic model
• Size of atoms and small molecules
• Structure of the atom

P1.2 Changes of state

• Conservation of mass during change of state
• Heating and changes in stored energy
• Physical vs chemical changes
• Specific heat capacity calculations
• Specific heat capacity vs specific latent heat
• Specific latent heat calculations

P1.3 Pressure

• Boyle's law and volume change at constant T (HT)
• Compressibility of gases (HT)
• Earth's atmosphere and atmospheric pressure (HT)
• Floating and sinking (HT)
• Gas particle motion, temperature and pressure
• Pressure in a column of liquid calculations (HT)
• Pressure in liquids and upthrust (HT)
• Pressure–temperature relationship at constant volume
• Variation of atmospheric pressure with height (HT)
• Work done on a gas raises temperature (HT)

P2.1 Motion

• Area under velocity-time graphs
• Average speed for non-uniform motion
• Calculating speed from measurements
• Distance-time and velocity-time graphs
• Equations of motion (uniform and uniformly accelerated)
• Measuring distance and time
• Unit conversion and proportional reasoning
• Vector–scalar distinction

P2.2 Newton's laws

• Circular motion: changing velocity at constant speed
• Examples of object interactions
• Force-mass-velocity-acceleration formulae (HT)
• Forces between pairs of objects
• Forces on isolated solid objects (terminal velocity)
• Free body diagrams for balanced forces
• Free body diagrams with multiple forces
• Inertia and inertial mass
• Momentum and conservation in collisions
• Newton's first law
• Newton's second law calculations
• Newton's third law
• Power as rate of energy transfer
• Representing forces as vectors
• Stored energy and energy transfer calculations
• Vector diagrams and resolution of forces
• Work done by a force

P2.3 Forces in action

• Acceleration in free fall
• Calculating spring constant
• Elastic vs plastic deformation
• Energy transferred in stretching
• Force-mass-gravitational field formulae (HT)
• Force–extension relationship for springs
• Forces causing rotation (HT)
• Forces stretch, bend or compress objects
• Gravitational fields and field strength
• Levers and gears as force multipliers (HT)
• Linear vs non-linear force–extension
• Moment of a force (HT)
• Pressure in fluids creates net force (HT)
• Pressure–force–area relationship and hydraulics (HT)
• Weight and gravitational field strength g

P3.1 Static and charge

• Charge as a property of matter
• Charge, current and time relationship
• Current as flow of charge
• Current in a closed loop
• Electric fields and static electricity (HT)
• Electron transfer and static electricity
• Production of static electricity by rubbing

P3.2 Simple circuits

• Calculations in d.c. series and parallel circuits
• Circuit symbols and d.c. circuits
• Current depends on resistance and pd
• Curves of circuit elements (filament lamps, diodes, thermistors, LDRs)
• d.c. circuits for measurement and testing
• Designing circuits to explore resistance effects
• I–V characteristics: linear vs non-linear
• Ohm's law and constant/changing resistance
• Power transfer in circuits
• Resistance in series and parallel
• Series vs parallel circuits
• Solving circuit problems with equivalent resistance
• Variable resistance components

P4.1 Magnets and magnetic fields

• Earth's magnetic core and dipping compass
• Field strength depends on current and distance
• Magnetic effect of a current
• Magnetic field of a magnet
• Magnetic poles: attraction and repulsion
• Permanent vs induced magnets
• Solenoids enhance magnetic effect

P4.2 Uses of magnetism

• Alternators and dynamos (HT)
• Fleming's left-hand rule
• Force between magnet and current-carrying conductor
• Force on a current-carrying conductor calculations
• Induced potential difference (HT)
• Microphones, loudspeakers and headphones (HT)
• The motor effect (electric motors)
• Transformer equation calculations (HT)
• Transformer turns ratio (HT)
• Transformers and electromagnetic induction (HT)

P5.1 Wave behaviour

• Applying wave-velocity formula
• Definitions of wavelength and frequency
• Evidence wave travels not the medium
• Frequency range of human hearing (HT)
• Modelling waves with ripples and air
• Reflection, transmission, absorption at material interfaces (HT)
• Sound waves and vibrations in solids (HT)
• Transverse vs longitudinal waves
• Velocity, frequency, wavelength changes between media (HT)
• Wave equation v = fλ
• Wave properties: amplitude, wavelength, frequency, period

P5.2 The electromagnetic spectrum

• Electromagnetic waves are transverse
• EM waves transfer energy
• Frequency–wavelength across EM spectrum
• Hazards of UV, X-rays and gamma rays
• Light is an electromagnetic wave
• Limited visible range of human eyes
• Main groupings of the EM spectrum
• Medical imaging with EM and ultrasound (HT)
• Practical uses of EM waves
• Radio waves and oscillations in circuits

P5.3 Wave interactions

• Colour from differential absorption (HT)
• Constructing 2D ray diagrams (HT)
• Effects related to velocity in different substances
• Ray diagrams: convex vs concave lenses (HT)
• Wave–material interactions vary with wavelength

P6.1 Radioactive emissions

• Atomic nuclei: protons and neutrons
• Atoms and nuclei generate/absorb radiation
• Balancing alpha, beta and gamma decay equations
• Conventional notation for nuclei
• Effect of emissions on mass and charge
• Electron arrangement, excitation, ionisation
• Half-life and randomness of decay
• Isotopes: same element, different masses
• Net decline as ratio after integral half-lives
• Nuclear equations for radioactive decay
• Penetration of alpha, beta and gamma
• Unstable nuclei: alpha, beta, neutrons, gamma

P6.2 Uses and hazards

• Contamination vs irradiation
• Half-life and hazards (HT)
• Medical uses of nuclear radiations (HT)
• Nuclear fission and chain reactions (HT)
• Nuclear fusion (HT)

P7.1 Work done

• Conservation of energy in closed systems
• Energy change calculations across processes
• Energy changes from heating and work
• Energy stores and transfers in common situations
• Kinetic, elastic and gravitational potential energy

P7.2 Power and efficiency

• Energy dissipation
• Energy efficiency calculations
• Energy transfers in domestic devices
• Power ratings of domestic appliances
• Rate of cooling vs wall thickness/thermal conductivity
• Reducing unwanted energy transfers
• Ways to increase efficiency

P8.1 Physics on the move

• Dangers of large decelerations
• Estimating everyday accelerations
• Estimating forces in road situations (HT)
• Estimating speeds, accelerations and forces (HT)
• Estimating stopping distances over speed range (HT)
• Reaction time methods and typical results
• Stopping distance: thinking and braking
• Typical everyday speeds
• Unit conversion and rate calculation

P8.2 Powering Earth

• Dangers of live wires and connection to earth
• Direct vs alternating voltage
• Efficiency of the national grid
• Energy resources on Earth
• Live, neutral and earth wires
• National grid: high-voltage transmission
• Patterns and trends in energy use
• Step-up and step-down transformers in grid
• Transformer power transfer (HT)
• UK domestic supply: 230 V, 50 Hz a.c.

P8.3 Beyond Earth

• Big Bang model and CMBR (HT)
• Black-body radiation and temperature (HT)
• Circular orbits and gravity (HT)
• Earth's temperature and radiation balance (HT)
• Red-shift and the expanding universe (HT)
• Seismic waves and Earth's interior (HT)
• Solar system features and satellites (HT)
• Stable orbit radius and speed (HT)
• Sun's formation and stellar equilibrium (HT)

PAG P1 Materials

• PAG P1: Materials (densities)

PAG P2 Forces

• PAG P2: Forces (springs)

PAG P3 Motion

• PAG P3: Motion (acceleration on a ramp)

PAG P4 Measuring waves

• PAG P4: Measuring waves (ripple tank)

PAG P5 Energy

• PAG P5: Energy (specific heat capacity)

PAG P6 Circuit components

• PAG P6: Circuit components (I–V characteristics)

PAG P7 Series and parallel circuits

• PAG P7: Series and parallel circuits

PAG P8 Interactions of waves

• PAG P8: Interactions of waves (reflection and refraction)