Chemistry

C1.1 The particle model

• Limitations of the particle model
• Particle model: states of matter and changes of state
• Physical vs chemical changes (particle model)

C1.2 Atomic structure

• Calculating protons, neutrons, electrons; isotopes
• History of the atomic model
• Size and scale of atoms
• Structure of the atom: nucleus and electrons
• Sub-atomic particles: charges and masses

C2.1 Purity and separating mixtures

• Chromatographic methods to test for purity
• Empirical formula
• Filtration, crystallisation and distillation techniques
• Formulations and alloys as useful mixtures
• Interpreting chromatograms and Rf values
• Melting point as test for purity
• Paper and thin layer chromatography (practical)
• Purity of substances (scientific vs everyday)
• Relative formula mass calculations
• Stationary and mobile phases in chromatography
• Suggesting suitable purification techniques

C2.2 Bonding

• Atomic structure and position of metals/non-metals in Periodic Table
• Chemical bonding: electrostatic forces and electron transfer/sharing
• Chemical bonds: ionic, simple molecules, giant covalent, polymers, metals
• Dot and cross diagrams
• Limitations of bonding models and representations
• Mendeleev to modern Periodic Table
• Metals and non-metals: physical and chemical properties
• Periodic Table position and electron arrangement
• Reactions of elements and electron arrangement

C2.3 Properties of materials

• Allotropes of carbon: diamond, graphite, fullerenes, graphene
• Bulk properties of materials related to bonding
• Carbon's four covalent bonds
• Diversity of organic compounds (carbon families)
• Energy transfers, bond strength and changes of state
• Nano dimensions vs atoms and molecules (Higher Tier; separate science)Higher
• Predicting states of substances from data
• Properties and uses of nanoparticulate materials (separate science)
• Risks of nanoparticulate materials (separate science)
• Surface area to volume relationship for nanoparticles (separate science)

C3.1 Introducing chemical reactions

• Avogadro constant and the mole
• Balanced equations and conservation of mass
• Balanced ionic equations
• Common ions and compound formulae
• Law of conservation of mass
• Mass and moles conversion
• Mass changes in non-enclosed systems
• Periodic Table to write formulae and equations
• Reacting masses calculations
• State symbols (s, l, g, aq)
• Stoichiometry from masses; limiting reactants (Higher)Higher
• Writing chemical formulae

C3.2 Energetics

• Activation energy
• Bond energy calculations (Higher)Higher
• Endothermic and exothermic reactions (practical)
• Reaction profiles

C3.3 Types of chemical reactions

• Acids and alkalis: hydrogen and hydroxide ions
• Concentrated/dilute and weak/strong acids
• Generalised neutralisation: H+ and OH- forming water
• Neutralisation reactions: acids with alkalis/bases
• Oxidation and reduction in terms of electrons (Higher)Higher
• Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen
• pH and factor of ten relationship (Higher)Higher
• pH and hydrogen ion concentration
• pH scale for acidity and alkalinity
• Reactions of carbonates and metals with acids
• Techniques to measure pH (practical)

C3.4 Electrolysis

• Electrolysis of aqueous solutions (practical)
• Electrolysis of molten binary ionic compounds
• Electrolysis: products at cathode and anode
• Half equations at electrodes (Higher)Higher
• Technique of electrolysis with inert and non-inert electrodes

C4.1 Predicting chemical reactions

• Order of reactivity from experimental displacement
• Predicting reactivity from Periodic Table position
• Properties of Groups 1, 7 and 0
• Reactivity of metals with water and dilute acids
• Transition metals: general properties (separate science)
• Trends in Groups 1, 7, 0 explained by outer electrons

C4.2 Identifying the products of chemical reactions

• Advantages of instrumental analysis (separate science)
• Flame test technique (separate science)
• Identifying species from test results (separate science)
• Interpreting flame tests for metal ions (separate science)
• Interpreting instrumental data (mass spectroscopy) (separate science)
• Tests for cations and anions (separate science)
• Tests for gases (oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, chlorine)

C5.1 Monitoring chemical reactions

• Calculating atom economy (Higher)Higher
• Calculating gas volumes at RTP (Higher)Higher
• Choice of reaction pathway (Higher)Higher
• Concentration in mol/dm3 (Higher)Higher
• Concentration of solution (mass-volume relationship)
• Defining atom economy (Higher)Higher
• Molar gas volume relationships (Higher)Higher
• Percentage yield (Higher)Higher
• Theoretical mass of product calculations (Higher)Higher
• Titration calculations (Higher)Higher
• Titration technique (Higher; practical)Higher

C5.2 Controlling reactions

• Catalysts: characteristics and effect
• Catalytic action and activation energy
• Collision theory: temperature, concentration, pressure
• Effect of temperature, concentration, pressure, surface area on rate
• Enzymes as biological catalysts
• Identifying catalysts in reactions (practical)
• Interpreting rate of reaction graphs
• Practical methods to determine rate of reaction
• Surface area to volume effect on rate

C5.3 Equilibria

• Dynamic equilibrium in closed systems
• Le Chatelier's principle (Higher)Higher
• Reversible reactions

C6.1 Improving processes and products

• Biological methods of metal extraction
• Comparing properties of glass, ceramics, polymers, composites, metals (Higher)Higher
• Composition of important alloys (Higher)Higher
• Corrosion mitigation: barriers and sacrificial protection (Higher)Higher
• Corrosion process and conditions (Higher)Higher
• Electrolysis to extract reactive metals
• Factors affecting recycling decisions
• Graphs of reaction conditions vs rate (Higher)Higher
• Importance of Haber process (Higher)Higher
• Importance of N, P, K compounds (Higher)Higher
• Industrial conditions and economics (Higher)Higher
• Industrial extraction of metals using carbon (reactivity)
• Industrial fertiliser production processes (Higher)Higher
• Industrial vs lab fertiliser synthesis (Higher)Higher
• Interpreting LCA data
• Life-cycle assessment (LCA) principles
• Recycling materials for different uses
• Selecting materials based on properties (Higher)Higher
• Trade-off rate vs equilibrium in industry (Higher)Higher

C6.2 Organic chemistry

• Addition polymerisation (Higher)Higher
• Chemical cells (Higher)Higher
• Condensation polymerisation (Higher)Higher
• Cracking of hydrocarbons
• Crude oil as feedstock
• Crude oil fractions as alkanes (CnH2n+2)
• Deducing addition polymer structure (Higher)Higher
• DNA and naturally-occurring polymers (Higher)Higher
• Explaining fractional distillation
• Fractional distillation of crude oil
• Functional group reactions determine organic reactions (Higher)Higher
• Functional groups and homologous series (Higher)Higher
• Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells (Higher)Higher
• Making a polymer by condensation (practical, Higher)Higher
• Modern dependence on hydrocarbons; finite resource
• Naming and drawing first four members of homologous series (Higher)Higher
• Predicting products of organic reactions (Higher)Higher

C6.3 Interpreting and interacting with earth systems

• Anthropogenic causes of climate change
• Atmospheric pollutants: CO, SO2, NOx, particulates
• Development of an oxygen-rich atmosphere
• Effects of CO2 and methane on climate
• Formation of Earth's early atmosphere
• Greenhouse effect
• Potable water production

Practical Activity Groups

• PAG C1: Reactivity trend (practical)
• PAG C2: Electrolysis (practical)
• PAG C3: Separation techniques (practical)
• PAG C4: Distillation (practical)
• PAG C5: Identification of species (practical)
• PAG C6: Titration (practical)
• PAG C7: Production of salts (practical)
• PAG C8: Measuring rates of reaction (practical)