Chemistry

Formulae, equations and hazards

• Balanced chemical equations with state symbols
• Balanced ionic equations
• Evaluating risks in practical procedures
• Formulae of elements, simple compounds and ions
• Hazard symbols on chemical containers
• Word equations

Atomic structure

• Atomic number defines the element
• Calculating numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms
• Calculating relative atomic mass from isotopic abundances
• Development of the atomic model (Dalton onwards)
• Equal numbers of protons and electrons in atoms
• Isotopes
• Isotopes and non-integer relative atomic masses
• Mass number of an atom
• Relative charge and relative mass of subatomic particles
• Size of the nucleus relative to the atom
• Structure of the atom: nucleus, protons, neutrons, electron shells

Calculations involving masses

• Calculating relative formula mass and percentage by mass
• Concentration of solutions in g/dm3
• Conservation of mass in closed and open systems
• Deducing stoichiometry from masses of reactants and products
• Empirical formulae from reacting masses or % composition
• Experiment to determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide
• Limiting reactant
• Mole calculations: moles, mass and number of particles
• Reacting-mass calculations from balanced equations
• The mole and the Avogadro constant

Covalent bonding

• Covalent bond as shared electron pair
• Covalent bonding produces molecules
• Dot-and-cross diagrams of small covalent molecules
• Typical size of atoms and small molecules

Ionic bonding

• Calculating p/n/e in simple ions
• Deducing formulae of ionic compounds
• Definition of an ion
• Formation of ions in groups 1, 2, 6 and 7
• Ionic bond formation by electron transfer
• Lattice structure of ionic compounds
• Naming ionic compounds (-ide and -ate endings)

The periodic table

• Atomic number and position in the periodic table
• Electronic configuration and position in the periodic table
• Electronic configurations of the first 20 elements
• Identifying metals and non-metals from the periodic table
• Mendeleev's periodic table and predictions
• Periods and groups

Types of substance

• Classifying substances by structure and bonding
• Fullerenes and graphene
• Graphite and diamond as giant covalent allotropes of carbon
• Limitations of bonding models and representations
• Properties of ionic compounds
• Properties of metals
• Properties of simple molecular covalent compounds
• Simple polymers (poly(ethene) example)
• Uses of graphite and diamond linked to bonding

Methods of separating and purifying substances

• Core Practical: composition of inks using simple distillation and paper chromatography
• Paper chromatography theory and Rf values
• Producing potable water
• Pure substances vs mixtures and melting-point evidence
• Separation techniques: distillation, fractional distillation, filtration, crystallisation, chromatography

States of matter

• Interconversions between states of matter
• Particle model of solids, liquids and gases
• Predicting state of a substance from data

Acids

• Acid-alkali titration method to prepare a pure dry salt
• Acids, alkalis and the pH scale
• Bases and alkalis
• Chemical tests for hydrogen and carbon dioxide
• Core Practical: change in pH on adding calcium hydroxide/oxide to dilute HCl
• Core Practical: preparing pure dry hydrated copper sulfate crystals
• Dilute/concentrated and weak/strong acids
• General reactions of acids with metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal carbonates
• Hydrogen-ion concentration and pHHigher
• Neutralisation reactions and the H+ + OH- -> H2O ionic explanation
• Preparing a pure, dry sample of an insoluble salt
• Preparing soluble salts from a soluble base (titration method)
• Preparing soluble salts from an insoluble base (excess method)
• Solubility rules for common salts

Electrolytic processes

• Core Practical: electrolysis of copper sulfate solution with inert and copper electrodes
• Electrolysis of aqueous and molten electrolytes with inert electrodes
• Electrolysis of copper sulfate with copper electrodes (purification of copper)
• Electrolytes and the process of electrolysis
• Half-equations at electrodes
• Movement of ions during electrolysis
• Oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer
• Predicting products of electrolysis of binary molten ionic compounds

Obtaining and using metals

• Biological methods of metal extraction
• Displacement reactions as redox
• Extraction methods linked to reactivity (carbon reduction; electrolysis of aluminium)
• Extraction of metals as reduction
• Life-cycle assessment of a product
• Metals as ores in the Earth's crust
• Oxidation and reduction in terms of oxygen
• Reactivity series of metals (deduction from reactions)
• Recycling of metals
• Resistance to oxidation linked to reactivity

Reversible reactions and equilibria

• Dynamic equilibrium
• Haber process: ammonia from N2 and H2
• Haber-process conditions
• Predicting effects on equilibrium position (Le Chatelier-style)
• Reversible reactions and the equilibrium symbol

Chemical cells and fuel cells

• Chemical cells
• Evaluating fuel cells for given uses
• Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

Dynamic equilibria

• Fertilisers (NPK)
• Haber process as a reversible reaction (detail)
• Industrial conditions in the Haber process
• Laboratory vs industrial production of ammonium sulfate
• Predicting the rate at which equilibrium is reached
• Production of ammonium nitrate fertiliser

Quantitative analysis

• Atom economy and choosing a reaction pathway
• Avogadro's law for gas-volume calculations
• Concentration in mol/dm3 and conversion from g/dm3
• Core Practical: accurate acid-alkali titration
• Molar volume of a gas at rtp
• Percentage yield calculations
• Titration calculations: unknown concentrations and volumes

Transition metals, alloys and corrosion

• Alloy steels
• Alloys: explaining increased strength
• Corrosion of metals as oxidation
• Electroplating
• Preventing the rusting of iron
• Transition metals: typical properties (using iron)
• Uses of metals and alloys (Al, Cu, Au, magnalium, brass)

Group 0

• Inertness of noble gases
• Pattern in physical properties of noble gases
• Uses of noble gases linked to properties

Group 1

• Classifying alkali metals, halogens and noble gases
• Explaining group-1 reactivity in terms of electronic configuration
• Physical properties of alkali metals
• Reactions of lithium, sodium and potassium with water
• Trend in alkali-metal reactivity with water and predictions

Group 7

• Chemical test for chlorine
• Colours and physical states of chlorine, bromine and iodine
• Explaining halogen reactivity by electronic configuration
• Halogen displacement as redox
• Halogen displacement reactions with halide ions
• Hydrogen halides and their solutions
• Pattern in physical properties of halogens
• Reactions of halogens with metals (metal halides)

Heat energy changes in chemical reactions

• Activation energy and reaction profiles
• Bond breaking and bond making energetics
• Calculating energy change from bond energies
• Exothermic and endothermic changes
• Heat changes in chemical reactions

Rates of reaction

• Catalysts
• Collision theory of reaction rates
• Core Practical: effects of changing conditions on rate of reaction
• Effects of factors on reaction rate
• Enzymes as biological catalysts
• Interpreting reaction-rate graphs
• Suggesting practical methods to determine rate

Earth and atmospheric science

• Chemical test for oxygen
• Decrease of atmospheric CO2 by dissolution in oceans
• Earth's early atmosphere
• Evidence for human-caused climate change
• Formation of oceans by condensation of water vapour
• Greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases
• Photosynthesis and oxygen rise
• Today's atmospheric composition and climate effects

Fuels

• Carbon monoxide as a toxic gas
• Complete combustion of hydrocarbons
• Cracking of alkanes
• Crude oil as a complex hydrocarbon mixture
• Fossil fuels as non-renewable
• Fractional distillation of crude oil
• Homologous series
• Hydrocarbons defined
• Hydrogen vs petrol as a vehicle fuel
• Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
• Names and uses of crude-oil fractions
• Oxides of nitrogen as engine pollutants
• Sulfur dioxide and acid rain
• Trends in fraction properties

Alcohols and carboxylic acids

• Alcohol functional group and dehydration to alkenes
• Alcohols: methanol to butanol
• Carboxylic acid -COOH and acidic properties
• Carboxylic acids: methanoic to butanoic
• Concentrating ethanol by fractional distillation
• Core Practical: temperature rise from combustion of alcohols
• Fermentation production of ethanol
• Oxidation of alcohols to carboxylic acids
• Reactivity of homologous series via functional groups

Bulk and surface properties of matter including nanoparticles

• Comparing classes of materials
• Comparing the size of nanoparticles with atoms and molecules
• Properties and uses of nanoparticles linked to surface area:volume
• Risks of nanoparticulate materials
• Selecting materials for given uses

Hydrocarbons

• Addition reaction of alkenes with bromine
• Alkanes: methane, ethane, propane, butane
• Alkenes as unsaturated hydrocarbons
• Alkenes: ethene, propene, butene
• Bromine-water test for unsaturation
• Combustion of alkanes and alkenes
• Saturation in alkanes

Polymers

• Addition polymerisation forming poly(ethene)
• Biological polymers (DNA, starch, proteins)
• Condensation polymers: polyesters
• Deducing monomer from polymer (and vice versa)
• Other addition polymers (PP, PVC, PTFE)
• Polymer definition
• Problems associated with polymers
• Recycling of polymers
• Uses of common addition polymers

Qualitative analysis: tests for ions

• Chemical test for ammonia
• Core Practical: identifying ions in unknown salts
• Flame photometer data
• Flame tests for cations
• Identifying ions from results of standard tests
• Instrumental methods of analysis
• Sodium hydroxide tests for metal cations
• Tests for anions
• Uniqueness of ion tests